Overview of working time models

There is no such thing as the ideal working time model for all organisations. Working time models must be determined on a case-by-case basis. However, there are numerous established working time models that have been implemented in practice. These models illustrate what is feasible and beneficial when a culture of trust exists within the organisation, the statutory framework is adhered to, and attention is given to ergonomic design options. Motives and interests play an important role in the introduction of a flexible, new working time model. What is it intended to achieve: better customer service, an extension of operating hours, lower costs, or more satisfied, less stressed employees? This often raises the question of which model is suitable for achieving as many of these goals as possible.

The following overview briefly presents a number of working time models. Further information on the advantages and disadvantages of each model from various points of view can be found in the publications. Their legal aspects and the preconditions for their implementation are highlighted, examples of good practice presented and, above all, information provided about the ergonomic and socially acceptable design of these working time models.

Annual working time

What does annual working time involve?

Annual working time involves a predetermined working time budget distributed over an extended planning period, typically a year. This allows for an increase in daily or weekly working hours when the organisation’s workloads are at their peak and a reduction during less busy periods. This approach enables the organisation to adapt to seasonal fluctuations and other foreseeable variations throughout the year. Employees have a working time account, which must be balanced at the end of the year. The basis for the working time budget is derived from their “net annualised working time”, calculated for the entire year by multiplying their weekly hours and deducting public holidays, leave days, and other days of absence.

Workers' salaries are paid continuously because overtime can be offset during periods when the organisation is less busy. One essential element of this working time model is the extension of the period over which additional work is offset to a year. However, working hours must comply with the provisions of the
Working Hours Act.

Who is annualised working time suitable for?

• This model is suitable for both full-time and part-time employees.
• Annual working time can be introduced throughout an organisation or just in individual departments with fluctuating workloads.
• The introduction of annual working time can be useful for organisations with predictably fluctuating workloads.

Carer’s leave

What does carer’s leave involve?

Carer’s leave is a period during which an employee is released from work for the purpose of caring for relatives. Being released from duties by their employer means their employment relationship is suspended without remuneration for as long as their leave lasts.

If they are prevented from working for a brief period, the employee has an entitlement to care support allowance, which is paid by the long-term care insurance fund of the person they are supporting. This is equivalent to 90 per cent of their net pay.

What forms of carer’s leave are there?

• Short term: up to 10 days
• Over a longer period: 1 to 6 months

Who is carer’s leave suitable for?

For employees who have to take on family obligations at short notice.

Continued work after retirement

What does continued work after retirement involve?

Continued employment after retirement is defined as employment that is continued on a part-time or full-time basis after the month in which the employee reaches the retirement age.

Who is this model suitable for?

• Employees who wish to or have to continue working for financial reasons after reaching retirement age
• Employers who have not been able to or cannot adequately fill a vacant position before the departing employee’s retirement.
  
  

Flexible working hours

What does flexitime involve?

Flexitime is a typical form of working time flexibility. Flexitime offers full-time and part-time employees the opportunity to adapt the start and end of their working hours to their personal needs. This is particularly useful for people with caring responsibilities, as it allows them to organise their daily working times around operational requirements and personal wishes. In addition, plus or minus hours can be built up and reduced again at a later date. Flexitime is usually used in conjunction with working time accounts to document plus and minus hours.

What forms of flexitime are there?

• Regular distribution of working times: flexitime model under which the employee has to be present during core working hours (mandatory presence) while working set daily or weekly hours.
• Irregular distribution of working times: flexitime model under which the employee has to be present during core working hours (mandatory presence).
• Daily variable working hours: variable flexitime without core times.
  
  

Who is flexitime suitable for?

Generally applicable to any enterprise where prescribed attendance times for employees are not strictly necessary.

Functional working time

What does functional working time involve?

In the functional working time model, specific periods are designated for individual parts of the organisation during which they must be fully operational. Taking operational considerations into account, employees in these organisational units can determine and distribute their working hours themselves in consultation with their team.

The start and end times of their work are variable. However, it is essential to ensure the units can be contacted from both inside and outside the organisation. Functional working time represents a variation of flexitime (without core hours) under which employees independently organise when they are present during functional working hours (i.e. business hours). Consequently, reaching agreement on this matter is crucial for the sustained functionality of an organisational unit.

Who is functional working time suitable for?

Functional hours are suitable for organisations where individuals are able to cover each other's tasks. This model is often utilised in the service sector, administration, small workshops where employees have direct contact with customers, and generally in areas where teams can share the workload among themselves effectively.

Long-term working time accounts

What do long-term working time accounts involve?

Long-term working time accounts are insolvency-proof working time accounts that enable the implementation of long-term work schedule planning and individual lifetime work arrangements. It is only possible to hold money in long-term working time accounts, which are used to build up “working time credits”. They can be utilised for sabbaticals, further education, family and caregiving responsibilities, or for entering into a phased, early retirement. Depending on the chosen model, they can also provide flexibility in responding to long-term cyclical fluctuations in work demands. Employees save into their accounts over an extended period (at least one year) and draw on them again in the medium and long term. During this period their salary remains the same.

Accrual phase: employees can “pay into” the account during the accrual phase. For example, parts of their salary, overtime pay, time off in lieu, credit hours from short-term working time accounts, unused leave, or bonuses can be invested for this purpose. Employees are allowed to decide the components and amounts to be deposited. Overtime and unused leave entitlements are converted into monetary values based on labour costs and added to the employee’s credits. Since no taxes or social security contributions are due on the credits paid in, they have to be deposited in the account as well. Additionally, it must be ensured that the account is protected against insolvency.

Withdrawal phase: the money is paid out during the withdrawal phase. The employee can choose the amount to be paid out (at least 30 per cent and a maximum of 130 per cent of their last salary). Taxes and social security contributions become due upon withdrawal, but social security coverage is maintained. The credit balance must be used up by the time the employee retires; it cannot be paid out after their retirement. The withdrawal phase can be used, for example, for sabbaticals, parental or caregiving periods, or to finance partial retirement.

Whom are long-term working time accounts suitable for?

Long-term working time accounts are suitable for employees who are planning to take a sabbatical or reduce their working time over the long term. The saved credit is used to pay the salary during the periods when working hours are reduced

Further information is also available on the Recording of Working Times page.

Mobile working, home office, and teleworking

What do these forms of work involve?

Mobile work is work done away from the organisation’s premises or the workplace using (mobile) information and communication technologies. Employees can either independently choose the locations where they work, or these locations can be specified by the employer. Mobile work also includes occasional work from home (“home office working”). Unlike telework, there is often no contractual agreement governing mobile work. In contrast to telework, mobile work is not subject to provisions in the Workplace Ordinance (Arbeitsstättenverordnung, ArbStättV, see Section 2(7)), but is based on an ad hoc agreement with the employer. Furthermore, mobile work is distinct from the work done in mobile workplaces by workers such as professional drivers in the passenger or freight transport sectors, as well as work done at changing locations without performing information-related tasks, for instance by mobile healthcare workers or commercial travellers.

Who are these forms of work suitable for?

For employees who:

• are able to and want to work independently and responsibly
• have additional caregiving responsibilities and can perform their work spatially and temporally flexibly
• are frequently away from home (e.g. business travellers)
  
  

More information can be found on the Mobile Work page.

Modular working time/elective working time

What does modular working time/elective working time involve?

In a modular working time system, operating hours are divided into equal blocks of time (modules). Employees divide these modules among themselves. Modular working time, also known as elective working time, is possible for both full-time and part-time employees. In addition to extending service and operating hours, modular working time is a tool for adjusting staffing levels according to demand.

Variations of the flexible working hours model may also allow employees to choose their annual working time and adjust it up or down. For example, employees can agree to work 30 hours one year and return to full-time work the following year without changing their employment contract. The volume of working time they do each year is set towards the end of the preceding year. This makes flexible working time attractive for those interested in part-time work, and it is often used in settings with fixed shop opening hours.

Who is modular working time/elective working time suitable for?

Modular working time is implemented in settings with fixed opening hours such as retail or service-oriented craft businesses. It is applied effectively in businesses with predictable peak and off-peak periods. For instance, a bakery may experience more demand in the morning than later in the day. Modular working time is particularly suitable for a workforce with a high proportion of part-time employees and individuals who prefer to work at different times of the day.

Night and shift work

What do night and shift work involve?

This model allows for extended operating hours, which can include continuous, 24-hour operations. In this approach, employees’ (shorter) working hours are decoupled from the organisation’s (longer) operating hours. Shift work occurs when at least two individuals perform the same job at a workplace, regularly alternating based on a fixed, easily understood schedule. As a result, one person works while the other is off duty. The same workplace is occupied by different individuals at different times.

Common shift schedules vary in terms of shift cycles, shift duration, and shift rotation. Under a two-shift system, there is a changeover in the middle of the day between the early and late shifts. If work is carried out around the clock 7 days a week, this is referred to as continuous shift work.

For whom are these forms of work suitable for?

Shift work is not necessarily essential in order to extend operating hours. In some cases, this can be done by introducing staggered working hours (see below).

Shift work is typically indispensable for technical, economic, and social reasons. Certain work processes, for example in the chemical and steel industries, cannot easily be interrupted. In other industries, machines need to operate for as long as possible to ensure economic efficiency. The continued growth of the service sector, including retail, call centres, medical services, and hospitality, will also contribute to the ongoing necessity of shift work.

More information can be found on the Organisation of Night and Shift Work page.

Free and additional shifts

What do free and additional shifts involve?

Free and additional shifts are instruments designed to reconcile differences that have arisen between the employee’s contractual working time and the hours they actually work. They are mutually agreed between employees and the employer and communicated through the shift schedule.

Depending on the shift model, disparities may arise between employees’ actual working hours and their contractual weekly working hours. If employees work more hours than agreed, they accumulate overtime, which is subsequently offset through what are known as free shifts. Free shifts are shifts included in the regular shift schedule during which employees do not need to work in order to balance their working hours.

Employees may be required to take on additional shifts (not included in the regular shift schedule) to meet their contractual target number of working hours.

What needs to be considered?

When planning additional shifts, it is important to ensure compliance with the provisions of the Working Hours Act (e.g. an 11-hour rest period). Free and additional shifts are frequently utilised to enhance flexibility during fluctuations in demand. Adequate advance notice should be given for such arrangements.

On-call duty

What does on-call duty involve?

Employees are sometimes designated to be available and responsive to work-related issues or emergencies outside their regular working hours. During on-call duty employees are typically expected to be reachable and ready to address any issues that may arise. In contrast to standby duty (see below), employees can be on call at a location of their choice away from the organisation’s premises. However, they must be reachable by telephone, mobile phone, or pager so they can start work within a predetermined response time. On-call duty is not considered working time within the meaning of the Working Hours Act (Arbeitszeitgesetz, ArbZG).

For whom is on-call duty suitable for?

This arrangement is common in professions and industries where continuous or 24/7 coverage is required such as IT support, healthcare, emergency services, and certain types of technical support role. The purpose of on-call duty is to ensure there is someone available to handle critical situations or urgent tasks during non-business hours. On-call duty is also referred to as emergency service or on-call service. It is frequently utilised where minor work assignments have to be carried out unpredictably and cannot be postponed.

Parental leave

What does parental leave involve?

Parental leave provides parents with the opportunity to focus on the care and upbringing of their children during the first three years of life. It lasts for 12 to 36 months and is negotiated between the employer and the employee within that timeframe. Additionally, it is possible to split parental leave, with part of it being taken before the child reaches the age of 8. The second phase may last a maximum of 12 months. The employer has to be notified of parental leave at least 7 weeks before it is due to start.

Parents must not suffer any disadvantages at work when they go back to their jobs after parental leave. The employment relationship is suspended during parental leave. However, it is also possible for parents to work part-time for their employer during parental leave to maintain their family income. Parental leave should be arranged so that the employer has some certainty about when to expect the parent's return to work and is able to plan accordingly.

What other forms of this working time model exist?

Part-time employment during parental leave: parents are allowed to work part-time for up to 30 hours per week while they are on parental leave. If this option is used by both parents, they can still work 60 hours a week between them, so protecting the family’s income.

Who is this model suitable for?

For young and expectant families, as well as individuals who take on care responsibilities for relatives' children.

Partial retirement

What does partial retirement involve?

Partial retirement is a flexible retirement scheme under which older employees reduce their working hours for the remaining period until their retirement (at least 3 years) after reaching the age of 55. The rules on partial retirement aim to facilitate a gradual transition into retirement for older employees and also create employment opportunities for unemployed, trained professionals, as well as trainees in small businesses (up to fifty employees).

What forms of partial retirement are there?

Partial retirement can be implemented in various forms. For example, the activity can be continued as part-time employment, with only half of the standard time worked each day. Another option is to alternate between work and leave so that, for instance, one day is worked with the previous working hours, and the next day the employee is on leave. Another model of partial retirement is the “block model”, under which the period from the start of the agreement until the employee’s retirement is divided into two equal blocks of time. During the first block work is performed with the previously agreed working hours; during the second block the employee is on leave until they retire.

Who is partial retirement suitable for?

This model is aimed at all employees over the age of 55 who wish to work less or retire earlier.

Part-time leadership

What does part-time leadership involve?

Part-time leadership involves individuals holding leadership roles within an organisation while working part-time. Traditionally, leadership roles have often been associated with full-time commitments, but part-time leadership has become more common as work structures and organisational cultures evolve. A popular form of part-time leadership is the 4-day working week. The part-time leadership model has emerged to address the need for work-life balance felt by many highly qualified and dedicated executives. This may be expressed in the wish to reconcile family and career obligations more fully or a desire to pursue personal interests that necessitate a reduced work schedule. Generally, the preference tends to be for part-time arrangements that are close to full-time commitments.

What forms of part-time management exist?

• Part-time leadership on a nearly full-time basis
• Part-time leadership with a 4-day working week
• Part-time leadership as a half-day position
• Part-time leadership with two employees sharing leadership responsibilities (top sharing)

Who is part-time management suitable for?

• Organisations seeking to enhance their attractiveness as employers and improve employee retention. Additionally, employees in leadership roles should predominantly be assigned tasks that are predictable and manageable.
• Qualified personnel looking to work fewer hours and devote more time to their family and private interests.

See also Part-time work.

Further information can also be found on the Shorter Working Times page.

Part-time training or further training

What do part-time training and further training involve?

These approaches involve participating in training and professional development provision on a part-time basis. It is consequently possible for someone to engage in other activities alongside their training or further training. The reasons for taking this option include, for example, family obligations or restricted capacity for work, but it is also possible to work at the same time as attending training.

Who is part-time training and further training suitable for?

Trainees who have to carry out family duties (caring for children/family members) while training, have health limitations, or compete in elite-level sport. Part-time training is also possible in parallel with work.

See also Part-time work.

Part-time work

What does part-time work involve?

Employment is defined as part-time if employees work, on average, fewer hours per week than full-time employees in the same organisation. This includes both positions with 10 to 20 hours per week (part-time), as well as near-full-time or long part-time positions exceeding 30 hours per week.

What forms of part-time work are there?

• Traditional part-time work: the employees’ daily working hours are reduced, but they still work 5 days a week. Working hours are contractually defined and not variable.
• Variable part-time work: weekly working hours are reduced, but daily working hours are flexible.
• Near-full-time work: near-full-time work typically refers to a work arrangement where an employee works an almost full-time schedule, but falls slightly short of the standard full-time hours for that particular organisation or industry. Near-full-time work might involve a schedule that is just under the typical full-time hours, for instance working more than 30 hours per week.
• Part-time leadership: part-time leaders may hold key positions as managers, directors, or executives, but they dedicate fewer hours to their leadership roles compared to their full-time counterparts. Managers can also share leadership positions with another colleague (job sharing/top sharing). See also Part-time leadership.
• Seasonally variable part-time work: some industries or occupations may experience fluctuations in demand for work depending on the time of the year, leading to variations in part-time work hours. Examples include jobs related to agriculture, tourism, retail during holiday seasons, and outdoor activities that are more prevalent at specific times of the year.

Further information can also be found on the Shorter Working Times page.

Sabbatical

What do sabbaticals involve?

Sabbaticals are extended breaks from work that allow individuals to take time off for various purposes such as personal development, travel, education, or rest. The voluntary, systematic accrual of plus hours, for example by giving up some of their pay, allows the employee to acquire an entitlement to a block of time off during which their salary continues to be paid.

One example: a full-time employee receives only 75 per cent of their salary and can use the remaining 25 per cent to build up credits for a sabbatical. After 6 months, the employee is able to take a 2-month sabbatical while still receiving 75 per cent of their salary during this period.

Sabbaticals can be “sandwiched” between projects and help to take the pressure off employees. In general, it has to be clarified how long the organisation can do without the employee and how much notice should be given when a sabbatical is agreed. As a rule of thumb, the longer the planned sabbatical, the longer the notice period should be.

What forms of sabbatical are there?

• Sabbaticals for particular personal purposes (personal development, travel, education, or rest or other purposes such as building a house)
• Sabbaticals without a specific purpose

Who are sabbaticals suitable for?

All employees who are planning to engage in time-consuming private activities such as family commitments, extended vacations, or further education and who have already worked for the organisation for a significant period. This also includes employees involved in intensive projects who desire longer periods of rest and recovery.

Short-time work

What does short-time work involve?

Short-time work is not a voluntarily chosen working time model. Instead, it offers organisations the opportunity to reduce the regular hours worked within a company in consultation with its works council. The aim is to bridge a temporary lack of work and avoid layoffs. To compensate for the loss of wages, the affected employees receive short-time work benefits from the Federal Employment Agency (Bundesagentur für Arbeit). However, certain conditions must be met for a company to apply for short-time work. Additionally, employers and employees have to enter into an agreement on short-time work and submit an application for short-time work benefits to the relevant employment agency.

Who is short-time work suitable for?

Short-time work is generally only suitable for companies temporarily suffering from a drop in orders or production stoppages that are not due to seasonal fluctuations and make a temporary reduction in working hours necessary. The measure can help to reduce costs in the company and preserve jobs by temporarily reducing working hours, while employees’ wages are topped up with the short-time working allowance paid by the Federal Employment Agency.

Staggered working times/staggered shifts

What do staggered working times/staggered shifts involve?

If one shift of 8 hours is too short and two shifts are too long, staggered working hours or staggered shifts can be a suitable solution. In this working time model, blocks of working time are defined within the organisation’s operating hours that have partially overlapping start and end times. Employees start and finish their working days at different times. This allows the organisation to extend its operating hours and better manage its staffing requirements throughout the day.

Who are staggered working times/staggered shifts suitable for?

This model is particularly well suited to the retail or logistics sectors and many service industries, where it is frequently used.

Standby duty

What does standby duty involve?

Standby duty is a work arrangement under which employees are available to respond to work-related tasks or emergencies during designated periods. Employees have to stay in a location specified by their employer (usually at the workplace). This distinguishes standby duty from on-call duty (see above). During the hours when the employee is not carrying out work assignments, they are able to use their time freely (e.g. catching up on sleep), as long as they do not leave the predetermined location. It is important that the work can be started quickly because they are physically present on site. Standby duty is working time within the definition of the Working Hours Act, but may be compensated at a lower rate.

Who is standby duty suitable for?

Standby duty is common in healthcare, rescue services, and fire brigades (emergency services), as well as utilities (e.g. for technicians maintaining critical infrastructure).

Trust-based working time

What does trust-based working time involve?

Trust-based working time is an approach to working hours that emphasises trust in employees to manage their own schedules and workloads. Under a trust-based working time arrangement, employees have the freedom to determine when (and often where) they work, as long as they fulfil their responsibilities and meet performance expectations. This approach is often associated with a results-oriented or output-based work culture rather than one focused on strict adherence to a fixed schedule. Performance is measured based on results and outcomes rather than the number of hours worked. This approach encourages a focus on productivity and achievement rather than time spent in the office. In many cases, trust-based working time models do not require working time to be recorded.

Who is trust-based working time suitable for?

Trust-based working hours are not a universal model that can be easily implemented everywhere. Trust-based working time is more suitable for self-motivated, responsible individuals who can manage their tasks independently and autonomously. This is especially common in knowledge workers, creative professionals, and employees in project-based work environments.

Further information can also be found on the Working Time Recording page.